COP113 List of eExam Questions in the Bank

Latex formatted questions may not properly render

Q1 Yams generally require well drained soils

Q2 yam is the food for many Nigerians and are classified on species level

Q3 Fruits are ready for harvesting months after planting

Q4 the botanical name of maize is is

Q5 vegetables can be grown all the year round provided that there is sufficient

Q6 Vegetable crops are grown principally for their leafy vegetables, which are consumed, raw or __.

Q7 Life cycle of a crop is the period from germination to

Q8 which type of soil is very rich in plant nutrients has the drainage of sand and loose particles. It can withstand moderate period of drought, because the percolation is low and capillary is high

Q9 The types of minerals present in the soil confer on the oil some distinct characteristics

Q10 physical characteristic of the soil are

Q11 can be defined as the loose material covering the surface of the earth which supports life and is the basis of farming

Q12 organisms that exist in the neighborhood of plants and animals. These are predators i.e. organism that feeds on other organisms

Q13 factors that influence agriculture include pests, diseases and soil

Q14 are plants which start flowering at any period irrespective of day length

Q15 are plants that will start flowering when the day length is long e.g. a variety of okra which stays in the field for about 270 days before flowering i.e. the late maturing variety

Q16 are plants that short flowering when the length of day is short

Q17 Changes in temperature aggravate the effect of relative

Q18 Tomatoes is a lover of hot days and at night

Q19 This is about the most important factor influencing the .functioning of plants

Q20 Climate is the average

Q21 The government usually targets the rural farming areas as areas for infrastructure development. To meet with the increasing commercial activities in farming in these areas, certain social amenities like pipe borne water, road, and electricity are now being provided thereby transforming the rural areas to

Q22 Forest may be regarded as a complex ecological system dominated by trees which form a buffer for earth against the full impact of the sum wind and

Q23 can be defined as fixed sequence of growing different crops on one field at different times

Q24 is when the farmers observe that the soil has lost much of its fertility, he moves over to another plot of land leaving the former plot to re-grow into a bush.

Q25 The method of planting more than one type of crop on one plot of land at the same time is called

Q26 The most common system of agriculture used in Nigeria traditional villages is the

Q27 Quarantine measure can also be applied to eradicate and prevent the internal spread of plant diseases and pests within the

Q28 NISER stand for

Q29 the full meaning of NRCRD is

Q30 The goal of this IITA is to increase the productivity of major food crops and to develop sustainable agricultural systems capable of replacing fallow or slash and burn, cultivation in the humid and sub-humid tropics through

Q31 The acronym IITA stands for

Q32 Problems of the farmers are taken to the research workers by the for the analysis and solution

Q33 is carried out by the intellectuals in the University and at times ill research institutions for the sake of acquiring knowledge and not for solving immediate problems of farmers

Q34 Traditional, research in agriculture in Nigeria has concentrated on which are of value to industrialized economics

Q35 Research has played .role in the 'development of Agriculture in Nigeria

Q36 is a system of fanning whereby a fanner cultivates crops and rears animals in order to produce food for use by himself and his family only

Q37 The early system of farming was quickly overtaken with the advent of

Q38 The early man lived by hunting wild animals and gathering

Q39 is the traditional system of land ownership whereby land is generally regarded as the property of the community

Q40 Prices of farm products fall too low immediately after harvest, because the farmer cannot them properly till they can have better prices

Q41 The solution to lack of fund is that the farmers should form themselves to so as to generate capital for members

Q42 The only solution in making land available for farming is the strict adherence to the land use decree of 1978 as amended in

Q43 Land is one of the most important factors of

Q44 Extension service is defined as created to increase the production capacity and thus the standard of living of the rural and urban populace

Q45 There are two types of research, namely:

Q46 _- is an advanced stage of study undertaken to discover or establish facts or principles

Q47 These institutions mentioned in Q28 are established primarily to give assistance of diverse nature ranging from to farmer members

Q48 Agricultural related institutions such as extension organization, farm organization, financial institutions, and farmers’ association’s cooperatives are essential for

Q49 Irrigation facilities such as dams are particularly essential in areas where there is

Q50 For rapid agricultural development, need be made available to farmers

Q51 in operation is responsible for the fragmentation of farmland holdings and the difficulties encountered by individuals who are interested in farming

Q52 involves training of all categories of agricultural personnel. These include agricultural officers, agricultural superintendents, technicians and technologists

Q53 Adequate supervision of the use of the credit is however necessary to ensure the credit is spent on

Q54 There is great strain on the title family labour on the farm. Consequently, there is greater need for _.

Q55 Capital is needed by farmers to break the vicious cycle created by low productivity, low income and _.

Q56 For improved agricultural production and agricultural development, there is need for efficient distribution of farm inputs especially to the small scale farmers. The inputs need to be procured and supplied timely and in adequate quantity to the farmers in view of the of their application on the farm

Q57 Agricultural planning is a conscious sustained and systematic attempt made by the Government, non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) or private sector to utilize the available agricultural resources of the country in order to benefit

Q58 Agriculture is one sector in which Nigeria has a comparative advantage as it offers the greatest potential for expanding the productive base of the economy and diversifying its sources of foreign exchange

Q59 Scientific agricultural systems (crop rotation) have been discovered by the scientists to improve farmer’s performance in

Q60 Artificial insemination (AI) was developed to effect fertilization in the female animal without being in contact with the

Q61 Varieties plant and animals which are resistant to pest and diseases are also produced by

Q62 Herbicides are used to control weeds farm animals are treated in the farm clinic by vetenarians and vaccinated ensure immunization against.

Q63 The productivity of the people remaining farming increased consequently upon the use of

Q64 implies sustained improvement, advancement or growth in the various facets of the sector i.e. crops, livestock to mention a few which simultaneously enhance the standard of living of vast majority of the people especially farmers

Q65 If rural infrastructures are provided for the rural populace they become

Q66 The exportation of food, which earns foreign exchange, used to acquire that cannot possibly be provided locally due to natural constraints

Q67 Production of food in adequate quality to meet the nutrition requirements of all classes of the populace thus preventing,

Q68 _relates to the cultivation of economic trees for the use of man.

Q69 is the specialized study of all the medical issues relating to livestock and other domesticated animals

Q70 mainly concerned with the behaviour of the rural populace and their attitudes toward changes

Q71 The effective utilization of limited agricultural resources with a view to attaining optimum output is paramount in the mind of Agricultural economics, formulation and study of agricultural policies, programmes planning, finance and the demand and supply of agricultural products are important components of

Q72 involves the study of biochemistry of all agricultural products and their nutritional value

Q73 Agricultural biology is a discipline related to crop as being affected by pests and diseases and their control for increased.

Q74 is the study of the relationship between crops and soil

Q75 involves resource allocation as it occurs within the agricultural sector, organization of farms, availability sector, availability of agricultural inputs, changes in prices of inputs and outputs and marketing of cultural products

Q76 The study that deals with the farm machinery and mechanization is ____________





Q77 The sole aim of commercial agriculture is ____________





Q78 ____________ is when the farmers observe that the soil has lost much of its fertility, he moves over to another plot of land leaving the former plot to re-grow into a bush.





Q79 ____________ is the practice of growing exclusively one type of annual crop and harvesting it before planting another one on the same plot of land.





Q80 the Northern part has hotter days and cooler nights giving rise to higher yield of some crops like tomatoes in some areas of the ____________





Q81 Botanical name for guinea corn is____________





Q82 Botanical name for millet is ____________





Q83 Botanical name for wheat is____________





Q84 Botanical name for rice is ____________





Q85 Materials for shelter can be provided from agricultural products such as, except ,____________





Q86 Fishes are obtained by fishermen using several devices such as except____________





Q87 The discipline that entails the production and management of animals and their various products is ____________





Q88 ____________ is regarded as the centre of the activities between the Researcher and the Farmer





Q89 Rice requires rich loam to clayey soil retentive of ____________





Q90 The cereals grains have high____________ content





Q91 in the tropical regions of the world the following cereal crops form the bulk diet of large sections of communities except____________





Q92 The cereal crops or grain crops are those members of the family Grainier which are cultivated for their ____________





Q93 Vegetable crops include the followings, except ____________





Q94 ____________ are crops that complete their life cycle in two years or two growing seasons.





Q95 ____________ are crops that complete their life cycle once in. a year or a growing season, during which the vegetative and reproductive stages are completed





Q96 There is a sustained increase in farmers output leading to increase income and standard of living of ____________





Q97 The discipline that deals directly with the production and management of wild life is ____________





Q98 ____________ are crops that complete their life cycle once in three years





Q99 ____________ are crops that complete their life cycle once in three or four months and can undergo two or three life cycles in a year





Q100 vegetables are good sources of____________





Q101 ____________ is a soil that combines the three panicles of sand, silt and clay in suitable proportion and therefore is the best soil type for cropping





Q102 ____________ type of soil is well drained, loose an highly aerated





Q103 ____________ type of soil has very good chemical properties but poor physical properties





Q104 various types of soil include the following except____________





Q105 Organic materials which are made up of plant and animals is about____________ of the total volume of the soil.





Q106 inorganic materials contains nutrients like, except ____________





Q107 In Nigeria according to 1953 census over____________ of the population are engaged in agriculture





Q108 ____________ are living organism that lives on dead and decaying remains of other living organisms





Q109 The inorganic materials is about ____________ of the total volume of the soil





Q110 The inorganic materials include the following except , ____________





Q111 ____________ explains the binding together of soil particles into soil aggregates





Q112 ____________ is the relative proportion of various fraction or particles sizes in a given soil.





Q113 The soil is a natural body consisting of layers or horizons of minerals which has the following characteristic,except ____________





Q114 ____________ are living organisms that depend on other living organism for their food





Q115 The amount of solar radiation received on the earth surface each day depends upon the following except ____________





Q116 To ensure free flow of air movements through tree crop plantations, cultural practices like ____________ suitable for each crops is adopted.





Q117 As moderate temperature the more rapid air movements the more effective in reducing heat load of animals when moisture is present on the skin____________





Q118 Agricultural extension therefore provides the indispensable elements that farmers need to improve their____________





Q119 In all the southern part of the country experiences an average of ____________ of fairly dry to dry season





Q120 In all the southern part of the country experiences an average of____________ of rainfall in a year





Q121 Rainfall pattern affects ultimately the amount of feed that can be produced for livestock____________





Q122 The short day variety is the early maturing ones which complete their life cycle within ____________





Q123 Cultivated land is now being prepared with the use of ____________





Q124 The essence of using machines for farming is to ____________





Q125 Agricultural development occurs when there is an adequate supply of raw materials to the ____________





Q126 The cultivable land resources of Nigeria are grossly____________





Q127 The total land resource of Nigeria is estimated to be about ____________





Q128 In order to meet high labour cost, farmers need to have access to ____________





Q129 A fully monetized economy has exportation of agricultural products as one of its____________





Q130 ____________ is the amount of moisture in the atmosphere





Q131 High temperature may give rise to all or some of the following conditions in farm animals, except ____________





Q132 poultry could be comfortable at 350c, while the cattle can not cope at temperature above____________





Q133 The low productivity of our livestock is mainly blamed on the effect of ____________





Q134 Can variation in temperature influences agricultural practices in different parts of Nigeria





Q135 climatic factors are insulation, temperature, pressure, wind and rainfall. Each of these factors has its own influence on____________





Q136 ____________ is the planting of quick growing and quick manufacturing crops between slow growing and slow manufacturing crops.





Q137 Plant Quarantine regulation are meant purposely to prevent the introduction and distribution of foreign plant____________ into the country.





Q138 IITA is a non-profit international agricultural research center with its headquarters at ____________





Q139 ____________ is often carried out by the intellectuals mainly in the research institutes and at times in the universities purposely for solving the immediate problems in the country





Q140 one of the disadvantages of mechanized farmig is that____________





Q141 commercial type of farming encourages the use of ____________





Q142 In crop production, the subsistence farmer concentrates on arable food crops such as except____________





Q143 The Land Tenure System in Nigeria varies with the followings except , ____________





Q144 In this country a, large percentage of the products of the farm spoil after harvest due to____________





Q145 Agricultural products provide over and above local demands are exported to earn ____________





Q146 For research to be meaningful, it must be relevant to the farmers ____________





Q147 Agricultural policies are formulated while plans, programmes and projects are developed at different times and levels to facilitate the ____________





Q148 As an alternative to rain fed agriculture, irrigation ensures adequate ____________





Q149 Capital is very essential for agricultural development, because a lot of ____________ is needed





Q150 the application of another discipline which relates to the application of the basic economic principles to the operations of agricultural industry is called ____________





Q151 Yams generally require well drained soils

Q152 yam is the food for many Nigerians and are classified on species level

Q153 Fruits are ready for harvesting months after planting

Q154 the botanical name of maize is is

Q155 vegetables can be grown all the year round provided that there is sufficient

Q156 Vegetable crops are grown principally for their leafy vegetables, which are consumed, raw or __.

Q157 Life cycle of a crop is the period from germination to

Q158 which type of soil is very rich in plant nutrients has the drainage of sand and loose particles. It can withstand moderate period of drought, because the percolation is low and capillary is high

Q159 The types of minerals present in the soil confer on the oil some distinct characteristics

Q160 physical characteristic of the soil are

Q161 can be defined as the loose material covering the surface of the earth which supports life and is the basis of farming

Q162 organisms that exist in the neighborhood of plants and animals. These are predators i.e. organism that feeds on other organisms

Q163 factors that influence agriculture include pests, diseases and soil

Q164 are plants which start flowering at any period irrespective of day length

Q165 are plants that will start flowering when the day length is long e.g. a variety of okra which stays in the field for about 270 days before flowering i.e. the late maturing variety

Q166 are plants that short flowering when the length of day is short

Q167 Changes in temperature aggravate the effect of relative

Q168 Tomatoes is a lover of hot days and at night

Q169 This is about the most important factor influencing the .functioning of plants

Q170 Climate is the average

Q171 The government usually targets the rural farming areas as areas for infrastructure development. To meet with the increasing commercial activities in farming in these areas, certain social amenities like pipe borne water, road, and electricity are now being provided thereby transforming the rural areas to

Q172 Forest may be regarded as a complex ecological system dominated by trees which form a buffer for earth against the full impact of the sum wind and

Q173 can be defined as fixed sequence of growing different crops on one field at different times

Q174 is when the farmers observe that the soil has lost much of its fertility, he moves over to another plot of land leaving the former plot to re-grow into a bush.

Q175 The method of planting more than one type of crop on one plot of land at the same time is called

Q176 The most common system of agriculture used in Nigeria traditional villages is the

Q177 Quarantine measure can also be applied to eradicate and prevent the internal spread of plant diseases and pests within the

Q178 NISER stand for

Q179 the full meaning of NRCRD is

Q180 The goal of this IITA is to increase the productivity of major food crops and to develop sustainable agricultural systems capable of replacing fallow or slash and burn, cultivation in the humid and sub-humid tropics through

Q181 The acronym IITA stands for

Q182 Problems of the farmers are taken to the research workers by the for the analysis and solution

Q183 is carried out by the intellectuals in the University and at times ill research institutions for the sake of acquiring knowledge and not for solving immediate problems of farmers

Q184 Traditional, research in agriculture in Nigeria has concentrated on which are of value to industrialized economics

Q185 Research has played .role in the 'development of Agriculture in Nigeria

Q186 is a system of fanning whereby a fanner cultivates crops and rears animals in order to produce food for use by himself and his family only

Q187 The early system of farming was quickly overtaken with the advent of

Q188 The early man lived by hunting wild animals and gathering

Q189 is the traditional system of land ownership whereby land is generally regarded as the property of the community

Q190 Prices of farm products fall too low immediately after harvest, because the farmer cannot them properly till they can have better prices

Q191 The solution to lack of fund is that the farmers should form themselves to so as to generate capital for members

Q192 The only solution in making land available for farming is the strict adherence to the land use decree of 1978 as amended in

Q193 Land is one of the most important factors of

Q194 Extension service is defined as created to increase the production capacity and thus the standard of living of the rural and urban populace

Q195 There are two types of research, namely:

Q196 _- is an advanced stage of study undertaken to discover or establish facts or principles

Q197 These institutions mentioned in Q28 are established primarily to give assistance of diverse nature ranging from to farmer members

Q198 Agricultural related institutions such as extension organization, farm organization, financial institutions, and farmers’ association’s cooperatives are essential for

Q199 Irrigation facilities such as dams are particularly essential in areas where there is

Q200 For rapid agricultural development, need be made available to farmers

Q201 in operation is responsible for the fragmentation of farmland holdings and the difficulties encountered by individuals who are interested in farming

Q202 involves training of all categories of agricultural personnel. These include agricultural officers, agricultural superintendents, technicians and technologists

Q203 Adequate supervision of the use of the credit is however necessary to ensure the credit is spent on

Q204 There is great strain on the title family labour on the farm. Consequently, there is greater need for _.

Q205 Capital is needed by farmers to break the vicious cycle created by low productivity, low income and _.

Q206 For improved agricultural production and agricultural development, there is need for efficient distribution of farm inputs especially to the small scale farmers. The inputs need to be procured and supplied timely and in adequate quantity to the farmers in view of the of their application on the farm

Q207 Agricultural planning is a conscious sustained and systematic attempt made by the Government, non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) or private sector to utilize the available agricultural resources of the country in order to benefit

Q208 Agriculture is one sector in which Nigeria has a comparative advantage as it offers the greatest potential for expanding the productive base of the economy and diversifying its sources of foreign exchange

Q209 Scientific agricultural systems (crop rotation) have been discovered by the scientists to improve farmer’s performance in

Q210 Artificial insemination (AI) was developed to effect fertilization in the female animal without being in contact with the

Q211 Varieties plant and animals which are resistant to pest and diseases are also produced by

Q212 Herbicides are used to control weeds farm animals are treated in the farm clinic by vetenarians and vaccinated ensure immunization against.

Q213 The productivity of the people remaining farming increased consequently upon the use of

Q214 implies sustained improvement, advancement or growth in the various facets of the sector i.e. crops, livestock to mention a few which simultaneously enhance the standard of living of vast majority of the people especially farmers

Q215 If rural infrastructures are provided for the rural populace they become

Q216 The exportation of food, which earns foreign exchange, used to acquire that cannot possibly be provided locally due to natural constraints

Q217 Production of food in adequate quality to meet the nutrition requirements of all classes of the populace thus preventing,

Q218 _relates to the cultivation of economic trees for the use of man.

Q219 is the specialized study of all the medical issues relating to livestock and other domesticated animals

Q220 mainly concerned with the behaviour of the rural populace and their attitudes toward changes

Q221 The effective utilization of limited agricultural resources with a view to attaining optimum output is paramount in the mind of Agricultural economics, formulation and study of agricultural policies, programmes planning, finance and the demand and supply of agricultural products are important components of

Q222 involves the study of biochemistry of all agricultural products and their nutritional value

Q223 Agricultural biology is a discipline related to crop as being affected by pests and diseases and their control for increased.

Q224 is the study of the relationship between crops and soil

Q225 involves resource allocation as it occurs within the agricultural sector, organization of farms, availability sector, availability of agricultural inputs, changes in prices of inputs and outputs and marketing of cultural products

Q226 The study that deals with the farm machinery and mechanization is ____________





Q227 The sole aim of commercial agriculture is ____________





Q228 ____________ is when the farmers observe that the soil has lost much of its fertility, he moves over to another plot of land leaving the former plot to re-grow into a bush.





Q229 ____________ is the practice of growing exclusively one type of annual crop and harvesting it before planting another one on the same plot of land.





Q230 the Northern part has hotter days and cooler nights giving rise to higher yield of some crops like tomatoes in some areas of the ____________





Q231 Botanical name for guinea corn is____________





Q232 Botanical name for millet is ____________





Q233 Botanical name for wheat is____________





Q234 Botanical name for rice is ____________





Q235 Materials for shelter can be provided from agricultural products such as, except ,____________





Q236 Fishes are obtained by fishermen using several devices such as except____________





Q237 The discipline that entails the production and management of animals and their various products is ____________





Q238 ____________ is regarded as the centre of the activities between the Researcher and the Farmer





Q239 Rice requires rich loam to clayey soil retentive of ____________





Q240 The cereals grains have high____________ content





Q241 in the tropical regions of the world the following cereal crops form the bulk diet of large sections of communities except____________





Q242 The cereal crops or grain crops are those members of the family Grainier which are cultivated for their ____________





Q243 Vegetable crops include the followings, except ____________





Q244 ____________ are crops that complete their life cycle in two years or two growing seasons.





Q245 ____________ are crops that complete their life cycle once in. a year or a growing season, during which the vegetative and reproductive stages are completed





Q246 There is a sustained increase in farmers output leading to increase income and standard of living of ____________





Q247 The discipline that deals directly with the production and management of wild life is ____________





Q248 ____________ are crops that complete their life cycle once in three years





Q249 ____________ are crops that complete their life cycle once in three or four months and can undergo two or three life cycles in a year





Q250 vegetables are good sources of____________





Q251 ____________ is a soil that combines the three panicles of sand, silt and clay in suitable proportion and therefore is the best soil type for cropping





Q252 ____________ type of soil is well drained, loose an highly aerated





Q253 ____________ type of soil has very good chemical properties but poor physical properties





Q254 various types of soil include the following except____________





Q255 Organic materials which are made up of plant and animals is about____________ of the total volume of the soil.





Q256 inorganic materials contains nutrients like, except ____________





Q257 In Nigeria according to 1953 census over____________ of the population are engaged in agriculture





Q258 ____________ are living organism that lives on dead and decaying remains of other living organisms





Q259 The inorganic materials is about ____________ of the total volume of the soil





Q260 The inorganic materials include the following except , ____________





Q261 ____________ explains the binding together of soil particles into soil aggregates





Q262 ____________ is the relative proportion of various fraction or particles sizes in a given soil.





Q263 The soil is a natural body consisting of layers or horizons of minerals which has the following characteristic,except ____________





Q264 ____________ are living organisms that depend on other living organism for their food





Q265 The amount of solar radiation received on the earth surface each day depends upon the following except ____________





Q266 To ensure free flow of air movements through tree crop plantations, cultural practices like ____________ suitable for each crops is adopted.





Q267 As moderate temperature the more rapid air movements the more effective in reducing heat load of animals when moisture is present on the skin____________





Q268 Agricultural extension therefore provides the indispensable elements that farmers need to improve their____________





Q269 In all the southern part of the country experiences an average of ____________ of fairly dry to dry season





Q270 In all the southern part of the country experiences an average of____________ of rainfall in a year





Q271 Rainfall pattern affects ultimately the amount of feed that can be produced for livestock____________





Q272 The short day variety is the early maturing ones which complete their life cycle within ____________





Q273 Cultivated land is now being prepared with the use of ____________





Q274 The essence of using machines for farming is to ____________





Q275 Agricultural development occurs when there is an adequate supply of raw materials to the ____________





Q276 The cultivable land resources of Nigeria are grossly____________





Q277 The total land resource of Nigeria is estimated to be about ____________





Q278 In order to meet high labour cost, farmers need to have access to ____________





Q279 A fully monetized economy has exportation of agricultural products as one of its____________





Q280 ____________ is the amount of moisture in the atmosphere





Q281 High temperature may give rise to all or some of the following conditions in farm animals, except ____________





Q282 poultry could be comfortable at 350c, while the cattle can not cope at temperature above____________





Q283 The low productivity of our livestock is mainly blamed on the effect of ____________





Q284 Can variation in temperature influences agricultural practices in different parts of Nigeria





Q285 climatic factors are insulation, temperature, pressure, wind and rainfall. Each of these factors has its own influence on____________





Q286 ____________ is the planting of quick growing and quick manufacturing crops between slow growing and slow manufacturing crops.





Q287 Plant Quarantine regulation are meant purposely to prevent the introduction and distribution of foreign plant____________ into the country.





Q288 IITA is a non-profit international agricultural research center with its headquarters at ____________





Q289 ____________ is often carried out by the intellectuals mainly in the research institutes and at times in the universities purposely for solving the immediate problems in the country





Q290 one of the disadvantages of mechanized farmig is that____________





Q291 commercial type of farming encourages the use of ____________





Q292 In crop production, the subsistence farmer concentrates on arable food crops such as except____________





Q293 The Land Tenure System in Nigeria varies with the followings except , ____________





Q294 In this country a, large percentage of the products of the farm spoil after harvest due to____________





Q295 Agricultural products provide over and above local demands are exported to earn ____________





Q296 For research to be meaningful, it must be relevant to the farmers ____________





Q297 Agricultural policies are formulated while plans, programmes and projects are developed at different times and levels to facilitate the ____________





Q298 As an alternative to rain fed agriculture, irrigation ensures adequate ____________





Q299 Capital is very essential for agricultural development, because a lot of ____________ is needed





Q300 the application of another discipline which relates to the application of the basic economic principles to the operations of agricultural industry is called ____________